Fundamental Concepts in Chemistry

1.2 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS IN CHEMISTRY 1.2.1 SI Units (The International System of Unit)

i) Mass ii) Length iii) Time iv) Temperature v) Mole (Amount of Substance):

i Force: ii Volume iii Density iv Concentration: v Pressure

1.2.3 Uncertainty in Measurements

1.2.5 Decimal Places 1.2.6 Significant Figures

1.3.1 The Scientific Method

Experimental Skills

General precautions Safe behaviour

2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC NATURE OF SUBSTANCES 2.2 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY AND THE MODERN ATOMIC THEORY 2.2.1 Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

2.2.2 Postulates of Modern Atomic Theory 2.2.3 How the Modern Theory Explains the Mass Laws 2.3 EARLY EXPERIMENTS TO CHARACTERIZE THE ATOM 2.3.1 Discovery of the Electron Cathode Rays

Discovery of Nucleus 2.3.3 Discovery of Neutron

2.4.1 Constituents of the Nucleus 2.4.2 Atomic Mass and Isotopes

2.5.1 Electromagnetic Radiation

2.5.4 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

2.5.4 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

2.5.5 Limitations of the Bohr Theory

2.6 THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM 2.6.1 The Heisenberg's Principle

2.6.2 Quantum Numbers

2.6.3 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

2.7.1 Ground State Electronic Configuration of the Elements

2.8.1 The Modern Periodic Table 2.8.2 Classification of the Elements 2.8.3 Periodic Properties

Atomic Size (Atomic Radii)

Ionization Energy (IE)

Electron Affinity (EA)

Electronegativity Metallic Character 2.8.4 Advantages of Periodic Classification of the Elements

3.1.1 Octet Rule 3.1.2 Types of Chemical Bonding

3.2.1 Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols

3.2.2 Formation of Ionic Bonding

Factors Affecting Formation of Ionic Bonding 3.2.3 Exceptions to Octet Rule in Ionic Compounds Less than Octet (Central Atom is Deficient of Electrons):

More than Octet (18-Electron Rule):

3.2.4 Properties of Ionic Compounds

Formation of Covalent Bonding Representation of Covalent Bond (Drawing Lewis Structures)

Coordinate-Covalent Bonding Resonance Structures

Less than octet (central atom is deficient of electrons): More than octet (central atom has excess of electrons): Molecules containing an odd number of electrons:

Properties of Covalent Compounds

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory Electron Pair Arrangement and Molecular Shape

Bond Polarity and Dipole Moment Bond Angle

Molecular Shapes with Two Electron Sets (Linear Arrangement-AX2 type) Molecular shapes with three electron sets (Trigonal Planar Arrangement, AX3 type) Molecular Shapes with Four Electrons Sets (Tetrahedral Arrangement, AX4 Type)

Dipole-Dipole forces Hydrogen Bonding Dispersion or London Forces

3.4.1 Formation of Metallic Bonding 3.4.2 Electron-Sea Model 3.4.3 Properties of Metals Related to the Concept of Bonding

3.5.1 Valence Bond Theory (VBT)

sp2 hybrid orbitals, sp3 hybridization

sp3 hybridization

sp3d hybridization

sp3d2 Hybridization

Sigma-bond frame-work

Combination of Atomic Orbitals Bonding and Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals

Electron Configuration of Diatomic Molecules

Ionic Crystals

Chapter one Atomic structure

REVIEW QUESTIONS IV

REVIEW QUESTIONS V

4.1 RATE OF REACTION

Reaction Rate and Stoichiometry 4.1.1 Determination of Rate of Reaction

i) Nature of Reactants ii) Surface Area of Reactants iii) Concentration of Reactants

iv) Temperature of Reactants v) Presence of a Catalyst Effect of Catalyst on Rate of Reaction

4.2.1. Collision Theory Concentration and Collision Theory

4.2.2. Transition State Theory

4.3.1 Order of Reaction and Rate Constant

Order of Reaction and Rate Constant (Cont..)

1. Zero Order Reaction 2. First-Order Reactions

3. Second-Order Reactions 4.3.3 The Half-life of a Reaction

4.4.1 Molecularity of an Elementary Reaction 4.4.2 Rate-Determining Step

5.1 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 5.1.1 Reversible and Irreversible Reactions

Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium

Law of Mass Action

Units of Kc Unit of Kp Equilibrium Constant for Heterogeneous Reactions

Applications of Equilibrium Constant

Calculating the Equilibrium Concentrations

Haber Process for the Manufacture of Ammonia According to Le Chetalier’s Principle: Rate Considerations:

6.1 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 6.1.1 Structure and Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids Structure of Carboxylic Acids

a. Straight chain monocarboxylic acid

i. Oxidation of Primary Alcohols: ii. Oxidation of Alkylbenzenes: iii. Preparation of acetic acid (Ethanoic acid

Uses of Carboxylic Acids

Structure and Nomenclature of Esters

i) Odour ii) Boiling points iii) Solubility

i) Hydrolysis ii) Reduction

Esters

Carboxylic acids

Source and Structure of Fats and Oils Structure of Fats and Oils

Physical Properties of Fats and Oils Hardening of Oils

i. Soaps ii. Detergents

iii. Saponification (Soap-making) iv. Cleaning Action of Soap

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS, ESTERS, FATS AND OILS Carboxylic Acids Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids More Complicated Acids Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids Carboxylate Salts Esters Nomenclature of Esters Synthesis of Esters: Esterification Reactions Ester Hydrolysis Saponification Saponification of Triglycerides the Fat) Fatty Acid Salts